Certain Muslims hold the belief that Jesus did not experience death and will eventually return to Earth to eliminate all forms of disbelief. Interestingly, the concept of the Second Coming of Jesus is not explicitly mentioned in the Quran. Instead, it finds its origins in the Gospel of Mark (13:26), where it states, "At that time, people will see the Son of Man coming in clouds with great power and glory." However, the entire Chapter 13 of Mark's Gospel features a distinct linguistic style compared to the rest of the Gospel, suggesting that it may have been a separate piece of writing that Mark incorporated as a prediction attributed to Jesus [80].
The teachings regarding Jesus' anticipated second coming are documented within the Book of Revelation. A significant portion of the Christian community fervently awaits the return of Jesus. Within Eastern Christian traditions, a sense of skepticism developed around this book due to lingering uncertainties about its authorship, its distinct style, and reservations regarding its endorsement by groups like the Montanists, who were viewed as heretical. This suspicion towards the Book of Revelation endured in Eastern Christianity until the 15th century. A similar wave of doubt resurfaced during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. Initially, Martin Luther characterized Revelation as "neither apostolic nor prophetic" in his 1522 preface to his translation of the New Testament. However, he later reconsidered his position in 1530. Consequently, many scholars continue to question its inclusion in the Bible.
In Islam, the idea of Jesus' return closely aligns with the concept of the return of Imam Mahdi [81], which itself appears to have been influenced by the ancient Jewish-Christian concept of the "concealment" of the Messiah [82]. Intriguingly, the story of Imam Mahdi is also not explicitly mentioned in the Quran. Friedlaender (1910), also mentioned that the modern adherents of the orthodox Hanafiyya School, as well as prominent theologians from various schools of thought, have rejected the belief in Imam Mahdi. Additionally, figures like Ibn Khaldun regarded the story of Imam Mahdi as a Shia heresy that infiltrated Sunni Islam, possibly through Sufism [83].
Sufism, a term derived from the Arabic noun "suf" meaning "wool," has intriguing historical connections to Christian mysticism and pre-Islamic literature [84]. This influence is evident in Sufi stories, poetry, and narratives that frequently reference Christian mystics. The roots of Sufism can be traced back to the Nestorian Christian community in Iraq, who eventually embraced Islam while retaining elements of their original culture [85].
Within Sufism, there is a belief that Ali, a significant figure in Islam, was the first Gnostic man [86]. Sufis generally acknowledge the four caliphs, Abu Bakr Siddique, Umar ibn al-Khattāb, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib, as the rightful successors of Prophet Muhammad. However, Sufis hold Ali in high regard due to his unique virtues, which align with certain aspects of Shia beliefs [87].
Shia Islam is believed to have originated as a political faction initially supporting Ali but gradually evolved into a distinct religious movement. Its proponents advocated that leadership should remain within Prophet Muhammad's family and lineage, with Ali, who was both his cousin and son-in-law, seen as the rightful successor. This perspective prioritized a hereditary succession through Ali's descendants [88].
It is widely acknowledged by Muslim scholars that Abdallah ibn Saba, a Jewish convert to Islam, played a significant role in the formation of Shia beliefs. Abdallah ibn Saba propagated the idea that Ali had not died and would return on the Day of Resurrection [89]. Interestingly, Shia teachings exhibit certain Christian elements in their beliefs and traditions. Many Arab tribes residing in al-Kufa, before their conversion to Shia Islam, had Christian backgrounds. They regarded Ali as a charismatic leader akin to Jesus, thus finding affinity in the transition to Shia Islam [90]. Notably, the Nusayris-Alawis, a Shia sect in Iraq, maintain close connections with Christianity. They observe various Christian holy days, including Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, and Palm Sunday, reflecting the influence of Christian practices within their tradition [91].
While Shia Islam is commonly associated with Iran today, it originally did not emerge as an Iranian religious movement. As previously discussed, both Shia and Sufism trace their origins to Arab Christians who converted to Islam in Iraq. Kufa, an Iraqi city, served as the birthplace of the Muslim Gospel [92]. Consequently, it's understandable that the Muslim Gospel encompasses elements of Shia, Sufism, and Christian beliefs and traditions, which are not explicitly supported by the Quran or the sayings of Prophet Muhammad.
In the beliefs of Jews, Muslims, and Christians alike, the notion of death and resurrection during the Day of Judgment is a shared concept. When the Quran (19:33) mentions that "he will be raised up to life again," it likely alludes to the resurrection during the Day of Judgment. The Quran further expounds on this in verse 3:55, emphasizing that during the Day of Judgment, all individuals will experience resurrection, with God serving as the ultimate judge. Additionally, the Quran (4:159) highlights that on the Day of Judgment, Jesus will bear witness against those who do not believe in him. This convergence of beliefs underscores a common theme across Abrahamic traditions.
In conclusion, the diverse beliefs surrounding Jesus' return, particularly within Islamic traditions, reflect a complex tapestry of historical, cultural, and theological influences. While the concept of Jesus' Second Coming is not explicitly mentioned in the Quran, various interpretations and narratives have emerged over centuries, intertwining with Sufi, Shia, and even Christian influences within Islamic thought.
The origins of these beliefs can be traced back to early political and religious factions within Islam, including the influence of Jewish converts like Abdallah ibn Saba and the blending of Christian practices and beliefs present in pre-Islamic Arabian communities. Sufism, rooted in Christian mysticism, also contributed to the rich diversity of interpretations surrounding Jesus' return, further highlighting the interconnections between different religious traditions.
Despite the nuanced interpretations, the shared concept of resurrection and the Day of Judgment serves as a unifying thread across Judaism, Islam, and Christianity. The anticipation of a divine reckoning and the return of significant figures underscore the commonality of themes within Abrahamic faiths, emphasizing the interconnectedness of these traditions in their spiritual beliefs and theological outlooks.
80. Picknett and Prince (2008)
81. Cate and Mayhall (2009)
82. Friedlaender (1910)
83. Furnish (1999)
84. Oueijan (2001)
85. Baldick (1990)
86. Maleki (2005)
87. Armanios (2004)
88. Fuller, and Rend (1999)
89. Moosa (1987)
90. Watt (1969) as cited in Moosa (1987)
91. Friedman (2010)
92. Khalidi (2001)
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