The Jesus That Went to India

The Quran's lack of a detailed account of Jesus' crucifixion has led to various interpretations and stories regarding his fate among Muslim scholars [64]. One such narrative suggests that Jesus traveled to India, where he ultimately passed away and was buried in Kashmir. Advocates of this belief point to Quranic verse 23:50, which states, "We gave them both shelter on high ground, affording rest and security and furnished with springs," as evidence supporting this idea.

This theory, known as the Swoon Theory, posits that Jesus did not die on the cross but rather lost consciousness [65]. After being taken down from the cross, he was treated by the skilled physician Nicodemus, with assistance from Joseph of Arimathea. Upon regaining consciousness, Jesus is said to have journeyed through Afghanistan to Kashmir in search of the lost tribes of Israel, ultimately passing away and being interred in Srinagar. This concept was developed by drawing from testimonies found in the four Gospels, Quranic verses, and Islamic literature, such as Kanz-ul-Ummal, as well as Buddhist records [66].

However, it is vital to note that the Quran itself does not explicitly state that Jesus went to India. The traditions and interpretations that explain Jesus escaping death do not necessarily originate from an authoritative or early interpretation of the Quran's intended meaning [67]. Another perspective posits that it might have been someone else, perhaps Apollonius, who was mistakenly associated with this journey to India. 

Apollonius of Tyana is described as a philosopher following the neo-Pythagorean tradition, renowned for his extraordinary abilities, teachings, and extensive travels. While some draw parallels between him and Jesus Christ, suggesting similarities, others propose that he may have served as an inspiration for the narrative surrounding Jesus Christ. Apollonius indeed traveled to India to engage with Brahmins and Buddhists [68], and since the story of Jesus' crucifixion was possibly inspired by the narrative of Apollonius, it is plausible that Apollonius, rather than Jesus, was linked to the journey to India. An Arab historian named 'Abd al-Jabbar possessed documents dating back to the 6th or 7th centuries A.D., which mentioned the escape of a Zealot leader affiliated with a messianic Jewish group to India [69]. This historical account offers intriguing insights into ancient events.

Furthermore, in 1882, a significant revelation emerged when an ancient Essene manuscript came to light. This manuscript disclosed the tale of Yeshai beth Halachmee, an illegitimate child of Joseph and Mary, with connections to Mary Magdalene. According to this narrative, Yeshai beth Halachmee did not meet his end on the cross; instead, he was removed in an unconscious state and subsequently revived by skilled Essene healers who administered herbal ointments. Following this episode, he embarked on a journey to India [70].

The story of Yeshai beth Halachmee shares striking similarities with the biblical account of Jesus. In the Gospel of John (19:38-40), Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus were portrayed as taking Jesus down from the cross and transporting his body. Nicodemus brought a substantial quantity of myrrh and aloes, totaling about seventy-five pounds. This abundance of myrrh and aloes implies a purpose beyond mere burial and could have been employed for Jesus' treatment and recuperation from the crucifixion ordeal [71]. Considering these parallels, it raises the possibility that Yeshai beth Halachmee, rather than Jesus, might have been the individual who was apprehended, crucified, and subsequently found his way to India.

In conclusion, the diverse interpretations and stories regarding the fate of Jesus, especially in connection to India, reflect the complex tapestry of historical and religious narratives. While some theories, such as the Swoon Theory, suggest Jesus traveled to India after surviving the crucifixion, these interpretations are often based on a blend of religious texts, historical accounts, and creative storytelling. The absence of explicit Quranic references to Jesus' travels to India leaves room for speculation and various perspectives.

The emergence of historical documents, like those from 'Abd al-Jabbar, and ancient Essene manuscripts, such as the tale of Yeshai beth Halachmee, add layers of intrigue to the discussion. These accounts raise questions about the possibility of another figure, distinct from Jesus, being associated with the journey to India. As scholars continue to explore these historical threads, the story of Jesus and his potential travels to India remains a subject of fascination and ongoing inquiry, illustrating the rich diversity of interpretations within religious and historical discourse.

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64. Jadeed (1980)

65. Einhorn (2007)

66. Ahmad (2003)

67. Reynolds (2009)

68. Mead (1966)

69. Schonfield (1984) cited in Baigent (2006)

70. Bernard (1964)

71. Einhorn (2007)

The Death of Jesus

The Quran does not offer an intricate account of the circumstances surrounding Jesus' passing. Instead, it succinctly states in verse 19:33, "So peace is on me the day I was born, the day that I die, and the day that I shall be raised up to life (again)." This passage remarkably portrays Jesus, even as an infant, miraculously alluding to his eventual death, implying that it would be a natural human experience [63].

Interestingly, the same verse is also employed in the Quran to refer to Prophet Yahya, commonly known as John the Baptist (Quran 19:15), where it reads, "So Peace on him the day he was born, the day that he dies, and the day that he will be raised up to life (again)." Consequently, if we acknowledge that John the Baptist experienced mortality, it logically follows that Jesus, too, underwent death.

The Quran's most explicit reference to Jesus' mortality can be located in verse 5:117, where Jesus is portrayed as addressing God, stating, "When You terminated my life on earth, You became the Watcher over them." This verse provides a clear indication of the conclusion of Jesus' earthly life.

The Quran's stance on Jesus' mortality is succinct and clear. While it does not delve into intricate details surrounding his death, it acknowledges his mortality in various verses, notably in 5:117, emphasizing his human nature and the inevitability of his passing. In the scenario where Prophet Isa is identified as the Teacher of Righteousness, the ultimate fate of this enigmatic figure remains shrouded in mystery. The scrolls and historical records offer no definitive account of his end or demise. Rather, they hint at a life marked by persecution and opposition from fellow Jewish priests, notably the enigmatic "Wicked Priest," which compelled him to seek refuge in a distant land. Yet, the specific circumstances surrounding his death or later life continue to elude historical clarity, leaving room for ongoing speculation and interpretation.

Conversely, the Bible provides intriguing evidence that challenges the assumption of Jesus' death. In the Gospel of John (19:38-40), Joseph of Arimathea, a secret disciple of Jesus, courageously approached Pilate to request the body of Jesus after his crucifixion. Accompanied by Nicodemus, who had previously visited Jesus in secrecy, they brought a substantial seventy-five-pound mixture of myrrh and aloes. Notably, myrrh and aloes are traditionally linked to the treatment of the living. This choice of herbs for Jesus' care after the crucifixion suggests a belief in the potential of his revival. These herbs, renowned for their healing properties throughout history, continue to be utilized in modern pharmaceuticals and ointments.

In John 20:1-18, Mary Magdalene visited the tomb on the first day of the week, while it was still dark. She encountered Jesus but didn't initially recognize him, mistaking him for a gardener. You might wonder why she thought he was a gardener. Do resurrected individuals typically resemble gardeners? No, they don't. So why did she make this assumption? It's because Jesus deliberately took on the appearance of a gardener, because he had survived death, and he didn't want the Romans and Jews to discover this fact. Mary, believing the disguised Jesus to be a gardener, asked him, where did he lay him?" She was searching for a living person, denoted as "HIM." Moreover, she wanted to know where he had been "LAID" to rest, not "BURIED."

In Luke 24:13-16, there is an account of Jesus going to Emmaus with two of his disciples. They walked for five miles and couldn't recognize Jesus. This was because Jesus was still in disguise, intentionally concealing his identity, likely to avoid people knowing that he was still alive.

In light of these intriguing biblical accounts, a question lingers: Could it be possible that Jesus, in some remarkable way, survived the Crucifixion? While this remains a matter of deep theological debate, these passages certainly offer a thought-provoking perspective. The actions of Joseph of Arimathea, Nicodemus, and Mary Magdalene, coupled with the peculiar details surrounding Jesus' post-resurrection appearances, invite us to consider the possibility that there may be more to the story of Jesus' fate than meets the eye. Ultimately, these passages continue to fuel discussions and reflections on the profound mystery of Jesus' life, death, and potential resurrection.

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63. Reynolds (2009)

The Trial and Crucifixion According to Josephus

The narrative of Jesus' trial and crucifixion extends beyond the New Testament and finds mention in both the Talmud and the writings of Josephus, a prominent 1st-century Jewish historian. What is particularly noteworthy is the remarkable similarity among these accounts, prompting speculation that the Gospel writers might have drawn inspiration from the Talmud and Josephus.

Josephus, in his writings, makes reference to several individuals named Jesus [59]. Among them are Jesus son of Gamala, who led a rebellion (Life, 193); Jesus, a Galilean with 600 armed followers in Jerusalem (Life, 200); and Jesus, associated with a substantial fortress (Life, 246). He also records Jesus son of Shaphat, a prominent figure among the seditious, who led a band of robbers (The War of the Jews, 9:7). Another figure mentioned by Josephus (Life, 66-67) is Jesus, the son of Sapphias, who instigated a massive fire in the palace, resulting in the deaths of numerous Greeks residing in Tiberias and others.

In The War of the Jews (Book 6, 5:3), Josephus recounts the story of Jesus son of Ananias, who entered the temple during a religious festival, prophesied the destruction of Jerusalem, was beaten by Jewish authorities, handed over to the Roman governor, and subjected to interrogation. However, he chose not to respond and was ultimately released on account of being perceived as a madman [60].

The narrative of Jesus son of Ananias bears a striking resemblance to the story of Jesus in the Gospels. Both figures entered the temple during a religious festival (John 2:14-15, Mark 11:15-19, Matthew 21:12-17, and Luke 19:45-48). Both prophesied the temple's destruction (Mark 13:2 and Luke 21:6). Both were subjected to beatings by Jewish authorities (Matthew 26:67, Mark 14:65, John 18:22, and Luke 22:63) and interrogated by Roman governors (Matthew 27:11-14 and Mark 15:2-5). Notably, in the Gospels, Pilate offers to release either Jesus or Barabbas, and the crowd chooses Barabbas (Matthew 27:15-26, Mark 15:6-15, Luke 23:13-25, and John 18:39-40). Interestingly, Barabbas is referred to as Jesus Barabbas in the Gospel of Matthew [61]. Therefore, it is plausible that Jesus and Barabbas were the same individual.

Furthermore, the Gospels depict Jesus' family as believing he was out of his mind (Mark 3:21), consistent with the accusation that he was possessed by Beelzebul (Mark 3:22), given that madness was often attributed to demonic possession [62]. This detail further connects Jesus' narrative to that of Jesus son of Ananias, who was similarly perceived as a madman. Given the striking parallels among these various accounts, it is feasible that the Gospel writers incorporated elements from the Talmud and Josephus when constructing their version of Jesus' story.

In conclusion, the intricate interplay of historical texts from the Talmud, Josephus, and the New Testament sheds light on the complexity of narratives surrounding significant figures like Jesus. The similarities among these accounts, notably the story of Jesus son of Ananias, raise intriguing questions about the potential influence and cross-pollination of ideas among these sources. While this phenomenon challenges traditional views of historical and religious texts, it underscores the rich tapestry of interpretations that have shaped our understanding of pivotal events and figures, adding depth and nuance to the narratives that have profoundly impacted faiths and cultures throughout history.

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59. Whiston (1999)

60. Evans (1993)

61. Grant (2009)

62. Einhorn (2007)

The Crucifixion

According to widespread Muslim belief, Jesus did not undergo crucifixion; instead, he was elevated by God to the heavens and is anticipated to return to Earth before the Day of Judgment [51]. This belief is explicitly articulated in the Quran (4:157), which unequivocally states, "Jesus was not killed or crucified." Furthermore, the subsequent verse in the Quran (4:158) affirms, "Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself."

Medieval Islamic scholars, including notable figures like Al Zamakhshari, have elaborated on this perspective, emphasizing that Jesus did not experience death but was rather taken up by God into His presence [52]. This theological stance underscores the foundational belief within Islam regarding Jesus' destiny, challenging the conventional narrative of his crucifixion.

The verse that declares, "but so it was made to appear to them," has been interpreted by many Muslim scholars as implying that someone other than Jesus was made to resemble him and was crucified in his place [53]. Islamic tradition proposes several different individuals as potential substitutes for Jesus, including Judas, the betrayer of Jesus, a sentry or watchman, or even one of Jesus' close associates who had been promised Paradise and willingly offered to die in his stead [54].

However, it is essential to note that the theory suggesting Jesus projected his likeness onto another man who was subsequently crucified is considered heretical by many historians. While this concept seems to have been prevalent among Christians in the Arabian Peninsula [55], it lacks textual support within the Quran itself. Instead, the idea that Jesus was replaced by someone else primarily emerges in Islamic literature, evolving through translations and interpretations by Islamic scholars. For instance, al-Tha'labī contributed to this perspective in his work titled "Lives of the Prophets" [56].

The earliest accounts and narratives concerning Jesus in Islam can be traced back to two significant collections: "Kitab al-Zuhd wa'l Raqa'iq" (The Book of Asceticism and Tender Mercies) by Ibn al-Mubarak and "Kitab al-Zuhd" (The Book of Asceticism) by Ibn Hanbal. Additionally, contributions to the story of Jesus are found in "Qisas al-Anbiya'" (Tales of the Prophets), which continued to appear in Arabic literature until the eighteenth century [57]. These texts offer valuable insights into the evolving narratives surrounding Jesus within the Islamic tradition.

The narrative of Jesus being replaced on the cross first surfaced in non-canonical Gospels. The "Second Treatise of the Great Seth" suggested that it was Simon of Cyrene who was crucified while Jesus watched and laughed. This account also found support from Basilides, a second-century Gnostic Christian religious teacher. Another variation of the story, wherein Jesus was substituted, can be found in the Gnostic "Apocalypse of Peter." This apocalyptic text is available in an Arabic version known as the "Ru'ya Butrus" and was quite popular among early Christians in the 2nd century [58]. It is possible that elements of these Gnostic traditions influenced early Arab Muslims in the development of their stories. Ayoub (1980) argued that the concept of someone else being on the cross instead of Jesus is incongruent with the theological principles of the Quran.

The Quran, in verse 4:157, states, "We killed Christ Jesus the son of Mary, the Messenger of Allah"; but they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them, and those who differ therein are full of doubts, with no certain knowledge, but only conjecture to follow, for of a surety they killed him not." This verse stands as a cornerstone of Islamic belief regarding the crucifixion of Jesus and the mysteries surrounding it. 

Hypothesizing that Prophet Isa was indeed the Teacher of Righteousness, would imply that he did not undergo crucifixion; instead, he was coerced by the Wicked Priest to migrate to a remote land where his teachings and declarations could gain recognition and acceptance. Believers in Jesus' crucifixion have been shaped by the narratives presented in the New Testament.

In summary, Islamic belief holds that Jesus was not crucified but was elevated by God, as unequivocally stated in the Quran. Medieval Islamic scholars elaborated on this perspective, suggesting that someone else was made to resemble Jesus and was crucified in his place, although this theory is considered heretical by many historians. The evolving narratives surrounding Jesus in Islamic tradition can be traced through various texts, including non-canonical Gospels and Gnostic traditions, which may have influenced early Arab Muslims. Ultimately, the Quranic verse 4:157 remains a cornerstone of Islamic belief, emphasizing the mysteries surrounding the crucifixion of Jesus.

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51. Philips (1996)

52. Jadeed (1980)

53. Yahya (2003)

54. Jadeed (1980)

55. Jadeed (1980)

56. Lawson (2009)

57. Khalidi (2001)

58. Ehrman (2003)

The Betrayal of Jesus

In verse 3:54 of the Quran, there is a reference to a plot and plan against Jesus by the unbelievers, yet it does not explicitly specify the identity of the betrayer. In the scenario where Prophet Isa is identified as the Teacher of Righteousness, it would imply that he was betrayed by the Wicked Priest.

In contrast, the New Testament unequivocally identifies Judas Iscariot as the apostle who betrayed Jesus. Nevertheless, it's worth highlighting that a scholarly debate continues to swirl around the historicity of Judas Iscariot, raising questions about whether his character might have been a creation of literary imagination [49].

Certain scholars argue that the narrative surrounding Judas Iscariot, including his actions, appears to be a product of creative storytelling. They posit that elements of his story seem to have been drawn from various verses in the Old Testament. For instance, his betrayal for thirty pieces of silver bears a resemblance to Zechariah 11:13, his purchase of a field mirrors Jeremiah 32:9, and the manner of his demise echoes 2 Samuel 17:23. This perspective suggests that the character of Judas Iscariot may have been constructed for theological or narrative purposes.

Conversely, an alternative scholarly perspective suggests that Judas may not have been a real historical figure. Instead, it proposes that his name "Judas" was chosen symbolically to represent the tribe of Judah, serving as a metaphor for the Jewish people as a whole. This interpretation adds an intriguing layer of complexity to the figure of Judas Iscariot and underscores the potential symbolic significance of his character within the narratives surrounding Jesus [50]. In essence, the identity and historicity of Judas Iscariot remain subjects of scholarly inquiry and interpretation, contributing to the rich tapestry of theological and historical discussions surrounding the figure of Jesus and his disciples.

In conclusion, the contrasting accounts of the betrayer in the Quran and the New Testament, especially the ambiguous identity of Judas Iscariot, reflect the intricate nature of religious narratives. The debates among scholars regarding the historicity and symbolism surrounding Judas Iscariot illuminate the complexities of interpreting ancient texts. These discussions not only deepen our understanding of religious traditions but also highlight the multifaceted perspectives that shape our perceptions of historical events and figures, adding layers of interpretation to the stories that have shaped entire faiths.

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49. Picknett and Prince (2008)

50. Maccoby (1992)

The Bible and The Quran

The contemporary Bible, as we are familiar with it today, is the result of an intricate historical process characterized by both unintentional errors and deliberate modifications carried out by early scribes during the transcription of texts [45]. Scholars have meticulously identified an extensive array of variations, over thirty thousand of them, in more than five thousand seven hundred Greek manuscripts. Additionally, there are approximately ten thousand manuscripts of the Latin Vulgate, along with versions in Syriac, Coptic, Armenian, Old Georgian, Church Slavonic, and the writings of early church fathers. This substantial body of textual evidence underscores the complexities of the Bible's transmission. Notably, in the third century, the Christian philosopher Origen candidly acknowledged to his pagan adversaries that certain passages in the Gospels lacked precision and logical coherence, raising questions about their accuracy and consistency [46].

The narratives and teachings associated with Jesus in Islamic literature bear discernible traces of influence from the Gospels, albeit often expanded upon or adapted to align with Islamic perspectives [47]. It is worth highlighting, however, that while the Quran acknowledges the divine guidance sent to Jesus in the form of the Gospel (Qur'an 3:2), Muslims are urged to exercise caution against being excessively influenced by it. This caution arises from the Quran's assertion that the authors of the Gospel wrote in accordance with their own inclinations and conjecture (Qur'an 2:78). Therefore, Muslims are generally discouraged from using the Gospels as a primary reference, citing concerns about distortion and alteration.

The teachings about Jesus in Muslim and Christian traditions frequently diverge, leading to a plethora of differing beliefs, narratives, and viewpoints, particularly concerning his crucifixion and resurrection [48]. It is worth noting that these distinct accounts are not explicitly presented in the Quran itself but are rather found in the Hadith (Muslim traditions) and other Islamic literature.

In summary, the Bible's complex transmission, the influence of Gospel narratives on Islamic teachings about Jesus, and the Quran's cautionary approach toward the Gospel underscore the multifaceted nature of religious texts and their interpretations. The acknowledgment of historical and theological complexities is essential in fostering interfaith understanding and dialogue.

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45. Ehrman (2005)

46. Grant (2009)

47. Khalidi (2001)

48. Lawson (2009)

The Link Between Paul and Marcion

Marcion, the son of a bishop from Sinope, made his way to Rome around the years 142–143, arriving in the city approximately in 140, shortly after the conclusion of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Over the subsequent years, he formulated his theological framework and garnered a significant and devoted following.

Marcion stands out as one of the earliest figures known for compiling a Gospel canon with a distinct agenda: to sever the ties between Christianity and the Hebrew scriptures, essentially seeing Christianity as an entirely separate religious entity. Marcion achieved this by crafting his own Gospel, drawing from the Epistles of Paul and a modified version of the Gospel of Luke [40]. Despite his status as a Christian theologian who faced excommunication by the early Roman church for heresy, his Bible, comprising the ten letters of Paul and the Gospel according to Luke, eventually found its place within the New Testament.

The challenge arises when we attempt to discern which of Paul's writings, if any, reflect specific Pharisaic teachings. Pharisaism placed significant emphasis on both the Oral and Written Torah [41]. Some scholars suggest that Paul may have had exposure to, and even been influenced by, the prevalent pagan mystery cults in the Roman and Greek world [42]. Intriguingly, the Ebionites, a Jewish-Christian sect, painted Paul as a Greek who had sought conversion to Judaism in an effort to marry the daughter of a high priest, an offer that was declined [43]. An instance possibly indicative of this external influence is evident in Paul's first letter to the Corinthians (10:16-17), where he wrote, "Is not the cup of thanksgiving for which we give thanks a participation in the blood of Christ? And is not the bread that we break a participation in the body of Christ? Because there is one loaf, we, who are many, are one body, for we all share the one loaf." This concept of partaking in the body and blood for mystical communion bears resemblance to practices observed in the pagan mystery cults of the Greco-Roman world [44].

In conclusion, Marcion's radical theological stance and the subsequent inclusion of his Bible in the New Testament marked a significant turning point in early Christianity. His efforts to separate Christianity from its Jewish roots created a lasting impact on the development of Christian theology. 

Additionally, the complexities surrounding Paul's teachings and potential external influences highlight the diverse and evolving nature of early Christian thought, incorporating elements from various cultural and religious contexts. These historical nuances underscore the intricate tapestry of early Christian beliefs and practices, revealing the intricate interplay between different influences in shaping the religion's foundational doctrines.

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40. Armstrong (2007)

41. Kessler (2010)

42. Picknett and Prince (2008)

43. Einhorn (2007)

44. Picknett and Prince (2008)

The Gospels

It is widely acknowledged that the apostle Paul played a significant role in composing a substantial portion of the New Testament. However, it is notable that Paul's letters lack comprehensive accounts of Jesus' life and teachings. Given Paul's substantial influence on subsequent Gospel writers, they had to turn to alternative Jewish sources for information about Jesus [38]. 

In the writings of Paul, he warned against those who preach about "other Jesuses" (2 Corinthians 11:4), implying that there were individuals using this name in different contexts. Paul even goes as far as to label these preachers of "other Jesuses" as false brothers (2 Corinthians 11:26).

The writings of the Jewish historian Josephus provide additional examples of individuals named Jesus from the same era. These references include Jesus son of Gamala, who was identified as a rebel (Life 193); Jesus of Galilee, who commanded a group of 600 armed men in Jerusalem (Life 200); and another Jesus who resided in a large fortress (Life 246). Josephus also mentioned Jesus son of Shaphat, a prominent figure among the seditious, who led a band of robbers (The War of the Jews 9:7). Additionally, Jesus the son of Sapphias is recorded in Josephus's works as the individual responsible for setting the entire palace in Tiberias on fire, killing Greek inhabitants and enemies alike (Life 66-67).

Furthermore, The War of the Jews (Book 6, 5:3) recounts the story of Jesus son of Ananias, who entered the temple precincts during a religious festival, prophesied the doom of Jerusalem, was physically assaulted by Jewish authorities, handed over to the Roman governor, interrogated, and notably, he chose not to respond. He was ultimately considered a madman and was released. In light of these various references to individuals named Jesus from that time period, it becomes clear that "Jesus" was a common name of the era, and distinguishing among them can be a complex endeavor.

Another significant reference to the story of Jesus in the Talmud can be found in this passage: "R. Meir used to say: what does it mean: one that is hanged is a curse against (of) God? To two twin brothers, identical to one another, one ruled over the whole world, and the other took to highway robbery. After a while, he, the robber, was caught, and they were crucifying him on the cross. All passers-by said: the king is on the cross, for this meaning it was written: For he that is hanged is a curse against God" (Sanhedrin 9:7).

This passage draws parallels with early Christian legends that suggest Didymus Judas Thomas was Jesus' twin brother. In Aramaic, "Thomas" means 'twin,' and "Didymus" carries the same meaning in Greek. The concept of Jesus having a twin brother could have been inspired by the passage's reference to "two twin brothers, identical to one another." Additionally, the passage notes that passers-by referred to the crucified individual as the King, which aligns with verses found in the Gospels of Mark (15:31), Matthew (27:29), and Luke (23:35), where passer-by mockingly addressed Jesus as the King of the Jews.

Another compelling example pertains to the enigmatic figure of Judas Iscariot. Within scholarly circles, a contentious argument has arisen, suggesting that the account of Judas Iscariot's infamous betrayal might be a product of creative storytelling [39]. This intriguing perspective posits that the character of Judas Iscariot was meticulously crafted by weaving together elements from various Old Testament passages. These elements include his fateful act of betrayal in exchange for thirty pieces of silver, reminiscent of Zechariah 11:13. Furthermore, the acquisition of a field, as narrated in Jeremiah 32:9, and his tragic hanging, akin to the fate described in 2 Samuel 17:23, are elements that some scholars propose were artfully integrated into the narrative.

In conclusion, the composite image of Jesus in historical texts reveals a multifaceted character composed of various elements. The Talmud depicts him as both a Torah teacher and a sorcerer, while the Quran elevates him to the status of a revered prophet. In the New Testament, we encounter depictions of Jesus as a religious leader, a prophet, and even as a figure associated with rebellion against Roman rule. It is possible that the authors of the Gospels amalgamated these diverse narratives and attributes into a single, complex portrayal of Jesus, reflecting the rich tapestry of interpretations surrounding his life and mission.

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38. Meeks (1993)

39. Picknett and Prince (2008)

The Another Mission

Paul had another significant mission, which was to create divisions among the Jews. This division is explicitly described in the New Testament (Acts 23:7), where the Pharisees and Sadducees, along with the assembly, were divided because of Paul's teachings. His intention was to influence Jewish communities to move away from strict Torah observance. His goal was to promote greater tolerance among Jews in accepting Roman culture and practices (Colossians 3:11).

One example from Acts (18:24-25) highlights Paul's efforts to convince a knowledgeable Jew, well-versed in the Scriptures, about Jesus. He emphasized that Jesus had abolished the Law along with its commandments and regulations (Ephesians 2:14-15). Paul allowed his followers to eat pork, asserting that all food was clean (Romans 14:20). He also challenged the practice of circumcision, arguing that it had shifted from a physical act to a spiritual practice (Romans 2:25-29). However, it's important to note that Paul's views on these matters didn't go unchallenged; for instance, Barnabas and many others disagreed with him (Acts 14:1-2).

In Acts 21:28, the Jews accused Paul of introducing Greek teachings into the temple, thus defiling their holy place. This accusation led to a riot, during which the Jews seized Paul and expelled him from the temple (Acts 21:30). With the crowd attempting to kill Paul, Roman troops intervened to rescue him. To pacify the Jews, the commander arrested and chained Paul (Acts 21:33).

Paul, who was ostensibly a 'prisoner,' appeared to have a surprising degree of freedom and influence, even able to issue commands to a Roman officer as recounted in Acts 23:17. This suggests that Paul held a position of considerable influence. It's possible that Paul's nephew acted as a spy against the Jews, as he was instructed not to disclose this information to anyone (Acts 23:22). When the Roman commander learned of the plot against Paul's life, he ordered 200 soldiers, 200 spearmen, and 70 mounted troops to escort him safely to Caesarea (Acts 23:23), highlighting the importance of safeguarding Paul at all costs. Astonishingly, Paul, supposedly a 'prisoner,' was provided with a horse for his journey to Caesarea (Acts 23:24), a significant departure from the typical treatment of Jewish prisoners by the Romans.

In Acts 21:30, a tumultuous scene unfolds, with the entire city in an uproar as people rushed from all directions. This period corresponds with the Great Jewish Revolt mentioned by Josephus in War, 2:20.1, during which many Jews fled the city. Paul, along with Philip, the son of Jacimus, the commander of King Agrippa's forces, escaped the city and sought refuge with Cestius, the legate of Syria, who had entered Judea in 66 CE in an attempt to restore order at the start of the Great Jewish Revolt.

Paul's stay in Caesarea seemed comfortable, and he enjoyed certain freedoms. His friends were permitted to visit him and attend to his needs (Acts 24:23). This special treatment suggests that Paul, despite being a 'prisoner,' was afforded special privileges. King Agrippa even suggested to Festus that Paul should be set free (Acts 26:30-32). However, releasing Paul would have put him at risk of being killed by the Jews. Although Paul was not found guilty, he chose to appeal to stand trial before Caesar (Acts 25:12). This appeal was likely a strategic move to return to Rome without antagonizing the Jewish authorities.

During his journey to Rome, Paul received exceptional treatment and kindness from a centurion, despite being a 'prisoner' (Acts 27:3). This special treatment underscores Paul's importance, which appeared unrelated to his Roman citizenship. Upon arriving in Rome, Paul enjoyed a comfortable life and was allowed to continue preaching. His residence was well-guarded by Roman soldiers, as recounted in Acts 28:16. These soldiers were called upon to protect Paul from Jews who sought to harm him.

Christian tradition holds that Paul met a martyr's end in Rome during the reign of Emperor Nero in 68 A.D. This belief is based on the common fate of many apostles who were martyred for their faith. The precise details of Paul's death, however, remain less documented, with the Bible providing no exact time or manner of his passing. The tradition suggests that Paul was beheaded in Rome during Nero's rule. Interestingly, another Christian tradition holds that Paul journeyed to Spain, as mentioned in Romans 15:24. It is conceivable that, given his status as a former Roman agent and the need to safeguard him from potential harm by the Jews, Paul may have been pensioned off to Spain as a form of retirement.

In conclusion, Paul's mission was multifaceted, involving division among the Jews and the promotion of tolerance toward Roman culture. He challenged traditional Jewish practices, advocating a spiritual interpretation of the Law. Despite opposition and accusations, he managed to exert influence even as a prisoner. His remarkable treatment, special privileges, and strategic decisions indicate his significant importance, potentially due to his past as a Roman agent. Paul's fate, marked by martyrdom in Rome according to Christian tradition, remains a crucial aspect of early Christian history, shaping the faith's narrative for centuries.

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The Ringleader of Nazarenes Sect

Paul was often referred to as the ringleader of the Nazarene sect (Acts 24:5). The term "Nazarenes" is derived from "Notzerim," also spelled as "Notzrim" or "Nozrim." It's essential to note that the Nazarenes were Jewish and strictly adhered to Torah observance [36]. Interestingly, Jesus himself was called "Jesus of Nazareth" (Mark 14:67 and Mark 16:6), and the Gospel writers mentioned that he hailed from a place known as Nazareth (Matthew 2:23, Mark 1:9, and Luke 2:39). However, it's worth mentioning that there's some debate about the historical existence of Nazareth as a town in ancient times, as it is notably absent from any earlier Jewish sources before the third century AD. Despite this, both Jesus and Paul were associated with Nazareth, which was more than just a geographical location, it was also a sect within Judaism.

Paul's teachings began to create a division between the Nazarenes and traditional Judaism. The Nazarenes faced opposition from Pharisees, who considered them heretical and even included a prayer, the Birkat HaMinim, that invoked blessings against heretics. The Pharisees urged the Nazarenes to abandon their Messianic beliefs, which set them apart from other Jews [37]. The temple high priests took action by arresting the followers of Jesus (Acts 5:18), causing concern within the religious establishment.

However, Gamaliel, a prominent teacher of Jewish law, intervened and advised the temple priests to leave the Nazarenes alone (Acts 5:34-39). The Nazarenes, during this period, were still seen as part of the Pharisee party until around 90 C.E. It was through Paul's teachings that the Nazarenes began to shift their stance and distance themselves from rebellion against the Romans. Ultimately, they chose not to participate in the Bar Kokhba revolt, aligning themselves with a message of non-rebellion influenced by Paul's teachings.

In conclusion, the Nazarenes, associated with Jesus of Nazareth and Paul, were a Jewish sect adhering strictly to Torah observance. Initially, they faced opposition and were deemed heretical by some Pharisees. The teachings of Paul, however, played a role in transforming their stance. Through his influence, the Nazarenes shifted away from rebellion against the Romans, choosing a message of non-rebellion. Despite debates about the historical existence of Nazareth, it became more than a geographical location, it symbolised a sect within Judaism shaped by the teachings of Jesus and Paul.

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36. Maccoby (1973)

37. Maccoby (1973)

The Original Mission

Initially, Paul's mission involved locating and capturing the followers of Jesus/Judas the Galilean to suppress potential revolts against the Romans (Galatians 1:13-14). Yet, due to the considerable number of followers who continued to anticipate a Messiah liberating them from Roman oppression (Acts 1:6), both the Romans and Paul had to modify their approach.

Paul began to preach in an effort to counteract the revolutionary fervor [35]. He shifted blame away from the Romans and onto the Jews for the death of Jesus/Judas the Galilean (1 Thessalonians 2:14-15). Paul went as far as encouraging the followers of Jesus/Judas the Galilean to submit to Roman authority (Romans 13:1-5). He argued that Jesus/Judas the Galilean was not an anti-Roman rebel but had come to preach peace to the people (Ephesians 2:17). Paul's narrative persisted in emphasizing that Jesus/Judas the Galilean willingly took on human form, sacrificed himself on the cross, and died for the sins of his followers (1 Corinthians 15:3). This approach was aimed at convincing the Jewish community that Jesus/Judas was not a rebel but had willingly offered himself as a sacrifice to bring an end to the uprising against the Romans.

The Jewish people had been eagerly searching for signs that would herald the arrival of their awaited Messiah. Paul, in his efforts to persuade the Jews, sought to convince them that Jesus/Judas the Galilean was indeed the Messiah promised in Jewish scriptures (Acts 18:28). However, if Jesus/Judas the Galilean had truly died on the cross, he would have been considered a failed Messiah. Failed Messiahs were often cursed by the Jewish community, and their names were remembered as "Jesus" with the addition of a curse, wishing their name and memory to be wiped out. Furthermore, according to Jewish law, anyone who was hanged on a tree was considered "accursed of God" (Deuteronomy 21:23). This presented a significant hurdle to accepting Jesus/Judas the Galilean as the promised Messiah, especially considering the crucifixion event (Acts 5:30, 10:39, and 13:29). Paul, however, employed a clever strategy to address this challenge.

Understanding that for Jesus/Judas the Galilean to be accepted as the promised Messiah, he could not have remained dead, Paul used scripture to support his argument. He claimed that Jesus/Judas the Galilean had been raised from the dead and had appeared to the apostles, as well as to more than 500 disciples, including Paul himself (1 Corinthians 15:1-11). Moreover, to strengthen his case, Paul cited scriptures that prophesied the Messiah as a descendant of King David (2 Samuel 7:8-17). To further bolster the claim that Jesus/Judas the Galilean was the promised Messiah, Paul asserted that he was of the lineage of David (Acts 13:23).

In conclusion, Paul's mission initially aimed at suppressing potential uprisings by capturing followers of Jesus/Judas the Galilean. However, faced with a large and persistent following anticipating a liberating Messiah, both Paul and the Romans adapted their strategies. Paul shifted blame away from the Romans, emphasizing Jesus/Judas the Galilean as a messenger of peace, and sought to convince Jews that he was the promised Messiah. Overcoming challenges posed by the crucifixion, Paul argued for Jesus/Judas the Galilean's resurrection, using scriptures and lineage claims to strengthen his case. This strategic narrative transformation played a crucial role in shaping the acceptance of Jesus/Judas as the Messiah, eventually paving the way for the rise of Christianity.

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35. Voskuilen and Sheldon (2008)