During the period of Roman rule in Jerusalem, there were numerous uprisings among the Jewish population. The Jewish people had long been anticipating the arrival of a leader or Messiah who would deliver them from the oppressive rule of the Romans. Multiple factions of rebels emerged, each supporting different figures named Jesus. While the Romans captured and executed several individuals bearing this name, many of their followers remained at large.
There is evidence within the New Testament suggesting that Jesus and his followers were seen as rebels [16]. Notably, several of the Jesuses mentioned by Josephus were rebels from Galilee. In the Gospel according to Mark (1:16-19), Jesus' initial disciples were Galilean fishermen. Furthermore, Jesus resided in Capernaum, situated on the shores of Galilee, and carried out his preaching predominantly in the region of Galilee (Matthew 4:13-23).
The deliberate choice to commence his mission in Galilee is significant, as it was known as a hotbed of Jewish nationalist resistance against Roman rule. Indeed, many scholars argue that Jesus was crucified by the Romans due to political motivations [17]. Additionally, the Sanhedrin sought ways to apprehend Jesus, viewing him as a political agitator potentially inciting armed revolt [18]. Moreover, if Jesus was considered the Messiah, he would have been perceived as a leader of a political movement striving for independence [19]. In the Gospel of John, the Roman trial charge against Jesus is that he claimed to be the 'King of the Jews,' a title that implies his role as a leader of the resistance [20].
In the King James Version of the Bible, the Gospels of Matthew depict Jesus being crucified alongside two thieves. In the Gospel of Luke, these companions are referred to as malefactors, while in the Gospel of Mark, they are called transgressors. However, historical evidence contradicts the notion that the Romans crucified common thieves. The original Greek term for thieves, 'lestai,' translates to insurrectionists or defenders of the city against the Romans. Thus, the New Living Translation Bible uses the words revolutionaries and criminals instead of thieves and malefactors. This choice underscores that Jesus was crucified alongside fellow insurrectionists, suggesting a shared purpose.
The notion of tension between Rome and Jesus is evident in the Gospels. In the Gospel according to Matthew (10:34), Jesus told his disciples, "Think not that I am come to send peace on earth: I came not to send peace, but a sword." Furthermore, in the Gospel according to Luke (22:36), Jesus instructed his followers to acquire swords if they did not already possess them.
The Chief Priests desired to arrest Jesus but were apprehensive of his supporters (Mark 14:2), indicating that Jesus had a considerable following. This concept is substantiated by accounts in Matthew and John, where Jesus miraculously fed approximately five thousand men, alongside women and children (Matthew 14:21, John 6:10). Interestingly, in the Gospel according to Mark (6:40), the people sat down in organized groups, while in the Gospel according to Luke (9:14), Jesus instructed the disciples to have them sit down in groups of fifty.
The reference to Jesus instructing his followers to sit in groups of hundreds and fifties in companies may indeed evoke the imagery of a military formation. When considering the organization of one hundred companies, each consisting of fifty men, it totals five thousand individuals. This arrangement suggests a structured and organized assembly, resembling a military formation. It is worth noting that in the Gospel of John (18:1-12), it is written that the Romans required a substantial force of up to one thousand troops to apprehend Jesus on the Mount of Olives, further emphasizing the notion of a significant following [21].
One prominent figure associated with the teachings found in the Bible and those espoused by Paul was Judas the Galilean, who founded the 4th Philosophy and led a rebellion against the Romans in 6 CE, as detailed in Flavius Josephus' Jewish Antiquities 18.4-6. Numerous scholars have drawn parallels between Jesus and Judas the Galilean, citing shared actions such as cleansing the Temple in Jerusalem, involvement in a Barabbas-style prisoner release, and both being proclaimed Messiah in Galilee [22]. In the New Testament, Jesus was also referred to as "the Galilean" (Matthew 26:69 and Luke 23:6), and his followers were sometimes called "the Galilean" (Mark 14:70).
Consequently, it is suggested that Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus the Galilean, and Judas the Galilean may have been one and the same individual. Both Judas and Jesus were esteemed teachers of the Law, acknowledged in biblical references and historical records (Matt. 5:17-20; Mark 12:28-34; Ant. 17.149; War 1.648). Judas followed the Pharisees' teachings, a practice shared with Jesus. Josephus praised Judas and Matthias as exceptional interpreters of Jewish laws, highly regarded and beloved by the people. Another historical account (War 1.648) highlighted two esteemed scholars in Jerusalem, widely respected nationwide for their expertise in Jewish laws.
In Antiquities of the Jews, Josephus states that Judas, along with Zadok the Pharisee, founded the Zealots, the "fourth sect" of 1st-century Judaism. There is evidence within the New Testament that suggests some of Jesus' followers may have had rebel affiliations. In the Gospel of Luke, the apostle Simon the Canaanite is referred to as a Zealot. The term "Canaanite" can be traced back to the Aramaic word "qannai," which, when translated into Greek as "kananaois," means "Zealot." Historically, the Zealots were a political faction organized by Eleazar son of Simon in 66 C.E., and they were known for their fervent resistance against Roman rule [23].
In the Gospel of John, Judas Iscariot, the son of Simon the Zealot, is associated with a group known as the Sicarii [24]. The Sicarii were a radical and violent faction within the broader Jewish political movement of the Zealots, specializing in political assassinations carried out with short daggers known as "sicae" [25]. Furthermore, the disciples James and John earned nicknames like "Sons of Thunder," while Simon Peter was famously called the "Rock." These epithets may suggest that they were a formidable and assertive group [26]. Some scholars have even proposed that Simon Peter, originally known as Simon Barjonna, was an outlaw or rebel [27]. The term "Barjonna" could be interpreted as a member of the "baryonim," a Semitic term denoting terrorists or rebels [28].
In the second century, the Gospel of Peter was utilized as scripture in certain segments of the Christian church [29]. Within this gospel, Peter and his companions were portrayed as individuals hiding from the Romans and regarded as malefactors. They were accused of conspiring to burn the temple, leading them to seek refuge from Roman authorities, "But I, with my companions, was grieved, and wounded in our understanding we hid ourselves; for we were sought by them as malefactors and as wishing to burn the temple" [30].
According to Josephus Judas, together with Zadok the Pharisee, founded the Zealots, If Jesus indeed was Judas the Galilean, questions arise regarding the identity of Zadok the Pharisee. Some propose that Zadok was none other than John the Baptist, as his name includes the suffix "the Zadokian," indicating his lineage from Zadok, the High Priest during the reigns of the revered kings David and Solomon [31]. Josephus describes Antipas viewing John the Baptist as a revolutionary and a threat [32].
As previously mentioned, Paul of Tarsus, who had been operating as a Roman agent, initially posed as a convert and began following Jesus/Judas [33]. Judas and Jesus both opposed the Roman tax, with Jesus facing crucifixion for this stance (Luke 23.2) (Ant. 18.4). From 4 BCE to 19 CE, Judas focused his ministry on taxation issues. During a prisoner release in 4 BCE, the Jewish crowd demanded reduced payments and removal of sales tax. Judas led a tax revolt during the 6 CE census, though it didn't ease Roman extortion. Tacitus noted Judea's strain due to heavy taxation between 16-18 CE (Annals, ii. 42). Tacitus and Josephus extensively documented this struggle against Roman taxation. However, Paul instructed his followers to willingly pay taxes to Rome without hesitation (Rom. 13:1-7). This stance stood in stark contrast to Judas/Jesus viewpoint on Roman taxation.
Despite Jesus/Judas being executed and the rebellion crushed, the movement persisted underground [34]. His followers continued to await a leader or Messiah who would liberate them from the oppressive Roman rule, ushering in a reign of peace and justice in the Promised Land (Acts 1:6). Paul's original mission was to identify and apprehend the followers of Jesus/Judas, seeking to quell any further uprisings against the Romans (Galatians 1:13-14). However, given the sheer number of followers who remained steadfast in their anticipation of a Messiah, one who would deliver them from Roman oppression (Acts 1:6), both the Romans and Paul found it necessary to adjust their strategy.
In summary, the period of Roman rule in Jerusalem was marked by uprisings and the search for a messianic leader to free the Jewish people. Various figures named Jesus emerged, many associated with rebellion against Roman authority. Scholarly analysis points to potential links between Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus the Galilean, and Judas the Galilean, suggesting they might have been one individual. Evidence within the New Testament and historical records hint at their involvement in anti-Roman activities. The followers of Jesus/Judas persisted despite his execution, leading to continued anticipation of a liberating Messiah. This context sheds light on the complexities of religious and political dynamics during that time, shaping the narratives of Jesus and his followers.
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16. Picknett and Prince (2008)
17. Winter (1961)
18. Schonfield (1965)
19. Watson (1995)
20. Kessler (2010)
21. Einhorn (2007)
22. Unterbrink (2010)
23. Zeitlin (1962)
24. Zeitlin (1967)
25. Schuerer (1961)
26. Picknett and Prince (2008)
27. Bockmuehl (2004)
28. Grant (2009)
29. Ehrman (2003)
30. Hall (1983)
31. Altinger (1995)
32. Picknett and Prince (2008)
33. Voskuilen and Sheldon (2008)
34. Voskuilen and Sheldon (2008)
